Artist and historian Gengoroh Tagame has described bara as "a very negative word that comes with bad connotations", though he later clarified that the term is "convenient for talking about art that is linked by characters that are muscle-y, huge, and hairy", and that his objection was the term's use to describe gay manga creators. This misappropriation of bara by a non-Japanese audience has been controversial among creators of gay manga, many of whom have expressed discomfort or confusion over the term being used to describe their work. Since the 2000s, bara has been used by this non-Japanese audience as an umbrella term to describe a wide variety of Japanese and non-Japanese gay media featuring masculine men, including western fan art, gay pornography, furry artwork, and numerous other categories. The term was subsequently adopted by non-Japanese users of these websites, who believed that bara was the proper designation for the images and artwork being posted on these forums. The term was revived as a pejorative in the late 1990s concurrent with the rise of internet message boards and chat rooms, where heterosexual administrators designated the gay sections of their websites as "bara boards" or "bara chat". īy the late 1980s, as LGBT political movements in Japan began to form, the term fell out of use, with gei ( ゲイ) becoming the preferred nomenclature for people who experience same-sex attraction. Bara-eiga ("rose film") was additionally used in the 1980s to describe gay cinema. "rose tribe") in 1971, the first commercially produced gay magazine in Asia. Beginning in the 1960s, the term was reappropriated by Japanese gay media: notably with the 1961 anthology Ba-ra-kei: Ordeal by Roses, a collection of semi-nude photographs of gay writer Yukio Mishima by photographer Eikoh Hosoe, and later with Barazoku ( 薔薇族, lit. The term bara ( 薔薇), which translates literally to " rose" in Japanese, has historically been used in Japan as a pejorative for gay men, roughly equivalent to the English language term " pansy". The term bara translates literally to " rose" in Japanese, and has historically been used as a pejorative for gay men roughly equivalent to the English language term " pansy". Bara is distinct from yaoi, a genre of Japanese media focusing on homoerotic relationships between male characters that historically has been created by and for women. In non-Japanese contexts, bara is used to describe a wide breadth of Japanese and Japanese-inspired gay erotic media, including illustrations published in early Japanese gay men's magazines, western fan art, and gay pornography featuring human actors. The use of bara as an umbrella term to describe gay Japanese comic art is largely a non-Japanese phenomenon, and its use is not universally accepted by creators of gay manga. While bara is typically pornographic, the genre has also depicted romantic and autobiographical subject material, as it acknowledges the varied reactions to homosexuality in modern Japan. Bara can vary in visual style and plot, but typically features masculine men with varying degrees of muscle, body fat, and body hair, akin to bear or bodybuilding culture. The genre focuses on male same-sex love, as created primarily by gay men for a gay male audience. ' rose') is a colloquialism for a genre of Japanese art and media known within Japan as gay manga ( ゲイ漫画) or gei komi ( ゲイコミ, "gay comics").
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The saying ‘It takes a village to raise a child’ corroborates this thought. What is key in the description of culture in the above definition is shared meaning. Once again, culture is embedded in learning, which implies the ability to be taught, and therefore, the capacity to implement. Each of the above groups or philosophies had to be preserved for posterity and the young ones taught the principles of survival, which were in line with each highest good.Ĭulture can also be characterised as a learned activity, which is associated with groups of people and whose content embraces a wide range of phenomena, among others, norms, values, shared meanings and patterned ways of behaving. The highest good of Christians is purity that should lead to eternal life after death. The Greeks on the other hand believed in mental power, much in agreement with Des Cartes’ famous maxim, ‘I think, therefore I am’. A true citizen had to be strong enough to protect his family and the state. The highest good of the Romans was physical strength and power hence, they regarded disability as the lowest form of human development. Each community or era has its highest good that ensures a smooth transition of behavioural patterns that lead to sustenance and productivity. Central to this definition are development, learning and generation. Margaret Mead defines culture as a tapestry of traditional behaviour, which has been developed by the human race and is successively learned by each generation. The logical way of defining culture consists defining and representing the culture of the targeted community, in this case, the Batswana. There will also be a discussion of other proverbs, which serve the same purpose. The next section will be a discussion of the meaning of the proverb, manong a ja ka ditshika, its origin, as well as its role in the unification of the Batswana as a nation. This will be followed by an in-depth discussion of the theory of structuralism, mainly because the theory accounts for the systemic nature of discourse, written and spoken. These will be defined because they are the underlying concepts around which the chapter revolves. The terms culture and identity will be defined, and a working definition of each will be extrapolated from the several that would have been identified. In this regard, the complementary role of proverbs, metaphors and folktales play a pivotal role of uniting the community and keeping it glued together. Culture, history and civilisation all belong to a community conscious of its existence and way forward. In short, the Setswana proverb is a collective of direct and indirect statements that cover, among others, idioms, myths and folktales, all of which form the folklore of the community. 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Slash-and-burn agriculture in the wet coastal lowlands of Papua New Guinea: response of birds, butterflies and reptiles. Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin, Heidelberg, London, Paris, Tokyo.īowman D.M.J.S., Woinarski P.O., Sands D.P.A., Wells A. (eds) Vertebrates in Complex Tropical Ecosystems. Mammalian species richness in tropical rainforests. The effect of environmental disturbance on a tropical butterfly population. Bulletin de l’ Institut francçais d’Afrique noire A 22: 1259–1284.īlau W.S. Bulletin de l’ Institut francçais d’Afrique noire A 18: 569–582.īirket-Smith J. Transactions of the Lepidopterological Society of Japan 51: 89–98.īirket-Smith J. Diversity of fruit-feeding butterflies (Nymphalidae) along a gradient of tropical rainforest succession in Borneo with some remarks on the problem of ‘pseudoreplicates’. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 62: 313–341.īeck J. Vertical stratification of ithomiine butterfly (Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) mimicry complexes: the relationship between adult flight height and larval host-plant height. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 72: 585–607.īeccaloni G.W. Stratification and diel activity of arthropods in a lowland rainforest in Gabon. 1–500.īasset Y., Aberlenc H.-P., Barrios H., Curletti F., Bérenger J.-M., Vesco J.-P. (ed) Butterflies of the South East Asian Islands 3. This study shows that higher overall species richness does not imply higher species distinctiveness, and indicates that the contribution of land-use systems to global biodiversity should be evaluated with caution, even when relatively high species richness estimates are found.Īoki T., Yamaguchi S. Comparative studies based on diversity estimates from ground samples should consider not only the scale at which sampling is carried out and influences from nearby habitat patches in the surrounding landscape mosaic, but also possible behavioural changes in stratified species after forest modification. Although the butterfly assemblage showed a clear vertical structure in the natural forest, vertical stratification was no longer pronounced at the disturbed site. Overall, species richness seemed highest in the disturbed site, but both abundance and diversity of endemic butterflies were significantly higher in the natural forest. We compared the fruit-feeding butterfly assemblage of a natural hill forest to that of a disturbed hill forest, representing a mosaic of old secondary forest and recently abandoned or active subsistence farms. Studies on the impact of these man-induced changes on biodiversity are of urgent conservation concern. 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